Venture into the world of magic with this introduction to the history of witchcraft and the occult, charting the journey of magic from ancient civilisations to the 21st century.
The world we live in presents many mysteries, from the awe-inspiring Northern Lights to the secrets of alchemy. As Christopher Dell says in the introduction to his book The Occult, Witchcraft and Magic: An Illustrated History, ‘there is no culture on Earth that does not contain within it some form of magic’.
It’s only natural that humans have sought ways to contextualize magic within the framework of our own beliefs, whether that’s incorporating supernatural experiences into myths and legends, or accepting them as a sign from a deity to add weight to religious doctrine or to justify a course of action.
Each year on Halloween, children will take to the streets dressed in their finest black clothes and pointed hats, fitting the stereotype of the modern witch. But witches were once a much more terrifying prospect. So terrifying, in fact, that the Witchcraft Act of 1542 would ultimately lead to the death of over 500 people in England between the late 16th century and the early 18th century.
We wanted to delve deeper into the history of witchcraft and the occult. So, we present to you a brief introduction, complete with essential reading recommendations for those enchanted by magic.
Magic in ancient society
When you think of magic, you probably imagine witches. Many believe that witches were the invention of Christianity, providing a convenient way for communities to rid themselves of troublesome people by claiming they consorted with the devil. However, the history of witchcraft and the occult goes much further back, likely pre-dating Christianity by many, many centuries.
In Ancient Egyptian Magic by Christina Riggs, we see the influence of magic on daily life. A tomb that has been dated to around 1650 BCE contained an ancient Egyptian magician’s tools of the trade: wands, incantations and an inscription of the lid of a box implying the deceased was a ‘master of secrets.’ In Egyptian society, priest-magicians were employed to maintain order in society, handling everyday matters such as healing the sick and settling disputes to much grander work such as keeping the cosmos in its correct alignment.
Moving to ancient Greece and Rome, we see sparks of magic in religion and mythology, with many of the classical stories referencing supernatural feats. Ovid, the Roman poet, beautifully bridges the gap between magic and reality in his work Metamorphoses, and also features enchantresses who clearly dabble in the occult for their own gain, Medea and Circe.
Notably in ancient society, magic wasn’t something to be feared. It was considered complementary to faith and daily life, with practitioners enjoying respect for their wisdom. Polytheistic religions, as described in Pagans: The Visual Culture of Pagan Myths, Legends and Rituals, embraced magic. When Christianity began to take root, they were denounced as pagans, and so began an age when magic, or witchcraft, became heretical.
Magic in the medieval era
As we move into the Middle Ages, which are defined as the period between 500AD to 1500AD, magic continued to infiltrate religion, daily life and even culture. For example, many medieval monarchs were fascinated by the legend of King Arthur and one of the central figures of his court, Merlin. In The Occult, Witchcraft and Magic: An Illustrated History, Dell traces Merlin’s origins to the Welsh legend of the prophet Myrddin, before he appeared in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s work Historia regum Britanniae, written around 1136. The subsequent Tudor desire to associate themselves with the legends of Camelot and those golden days is well-documented.
Magic and alchemy became closely linked during this period. While alchemy itself is ‘concerned with the extraction and smelting of metals and the production of alloys and medicines’ according to Symbols of the Occult by Eric Chaline and Mark Stavish, it also took on elements of the occult as medieval philosophers and scientists became obsessed by the search for immortality and the Philosopher’s Stone.
What is clear in this period is that magic became more associated with darker creatures and intent. For example, in A History of Witchcraft: Sorcerers, Heretics, Pagans, they tell the tale of The Wild Hunt, a procession of evil spirits who roam medieval forests revelling and destroying. Eventually, the characteristics of the wild huntresses would serve as the inspiration for witches. Likewise, though Christianity was fairly widespread by the late Middle Ages, pagan festivals continued to be celebrated… until they became linked to witchcraft and the occult.
By the end of the medieval period, the witch-craze and surrounding hysteria were beginning to take hold. People believed many things about witches, but at its core, magic had become associated with a rejection of Christianity and making pacts with the Devil to commit heinous acts such as cannibalism, murder and infanticide. Sorcery had developed an evil reputation as witchcraft, and any hint of magical or supernatural knowledge – even as innocent as a familiarity with medicinal herbs – could mean death.
Magic during the Renaissance
The Renaissance period may be hailed as a revolution for art, architecture and literature, but it also heralded a new fascination with magic and the occult – and not always a good one. A fear of witchcraft and the occult has been recorded throughout Europe from as early as the 14th century, but according to Russell and Alexander, ‘the witch-craze was a product of the Renaissance and Reformation’.
In an attempt to avoid accusations of witchcraft, many practitioners of alchemy formed secret societies to continue their work, which would form the basis of modern chemistry, physics and mathematics. Interestingly, alchemy shares many of its symbols with astrology, which was another popular pseudoscience with links to magic. For example, despite Martin Luther – leader of the Protestant Reformation – denouncing astrology as an illicit pagan art with ties to the Devil, his friend and collaborator Philipp Melanchthon considered it a science with potential in many spheres of life, according to The Occult, Witchcraft and Magic: An Illustrated History.
But ultimately, magic during the Renaissance period was a fatal pursuit. As well as the infamous witch trials that took place across Europe and in the American colonies, high-profile figures within Christianity would fall victim to harsh heresy and witchcraft laws. For example, Forshaw presents the scandal of Giordano Bruno, a notable Renaissance figure known for being a mathematician, philosopher and occultist. While he originally trained as a Dominican friar in Italy, he would eventually be burned at the stake for ‘dealing in magic and divination’.
Witchcraft and the occult also began to take centre stage in literature. Shakespeare’s work features several famous witches including Prospero, from The Tempest, and the three witches of Macbeth who predict the rise and fall of the Scottish general. Christopher Marlowe, Shakespeare’s peer, also references the occult in his play Doctor Faustus, inspired by the real-life figure of Johann Georg Faust. The idea of witchcraft and the occult was both petrifying and fascinating to the people of this period, and it shows in Renaissance art and culture.
Magic and the modern world
Elements of the occult can be found in the rise of spiritualists and spiritualism in the 19th century, which according to Occult by Peter Forshaw, first appeared in New York when two sisters claimed to hear ‘rapping’ sounds in their house, allegedly from a poltergeist. This led to the rapid development of a new movement that sought connections between the living and the dead and aimed to prove the existence of an afterlife.
This fascination with life after death, and the desire for forbidden knowledge, also led to the rise of tarot, fortune-telling, and a new kind of occultist who became more entertainer than true occultist. It has also persisted into the 21st century, with mediums, psychics and clairvoyants commanding audiences in Las Vegas, hosting Netflix shows, and more.
So, where does that leave magic in the modern world? Given that magic ultimately shaped the modern disciplines of science, maths, philosophy and more, it could be argued that magic is an intrinsic part of modern society. We also see a gentler, everyday sort of magic live on in modern society through the practice of Wicca, which Christopher Dell describes as ‘a modern, pagan, duotheistic religion that exalts nature but also incorporates elements of ceremonial high magic’. Wicca is known for its community spirit and adherence to pagan festivals.